Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide free pdf download

These are mainly ideas that can never be directly tested because they cannot be measured. They must be operationalized or made measurable before they are tested. For example, discipline facilitates academic achievement or negative attitudes retard development. An experimental research hypothesis states expected relationships between independent and dependent variables. For example, rewards after an accomplishment of a task will increase the frequency of the performance of the task.

This is an example of an experimental research hypothesis. For example, a teacher notes that students who complete the mathematics examinations half an hour before the expected time usually perform poorly as compared to those who complete in the expected time. The teacher may decide to investigate the relationship between the number of minutes needed to complete an examination and the score on the examination.

The teacher may use the data to determine whether there is a significant negative relationship between these two variables. The research hypothesis may be formulated as follows: The length of time needed to complete the mathematics examination will be negatively correlated with the score on the examination for students.

This hypothesis is a guess about the value of a population parameter or about the relationship between values of two or more parameters the hypothesis is testing. The statistical hypotheses consist of the null hypothesis H0 and the alternative hypothesis H1. An example of a statistical hypotheses can be stated as following: The mean different scores in Sociology by students in the Institute of Open Learning and those in the Department of Sociology at Nairobi university is zero.

The aim of testing is to show that the hypothesis is false and thereby accept the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis refers to the guess the researcher tests and hopes to prove wrong, reject or nullify. The null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between the variables studied.

Confirmation of the research hypothesis is based on rejecting the null. For example, there is no significant difference in the academic performance of students who attend private schools and those who attend public schools in national examinations. If the researcher wishes to show that a difference exists in national examination performance among students in public and private schools, then the researcher must prove that there are no differences. The null hypothesis specifies the expected value of a single population parameter or the expected relationship between two or more parameters.

The first step in testing a hypothesis is to make the assumption that there is no significant difference between variables or conditions being studied. This assumption is called null and it refers to nothing or no relationship.

Null is symbolized by Ho The aim of testing is to show that the hypothesis is false and thereby accept the alternative one. The null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between the variables being studies. Ho; There is no significant difference between business location and profit margin. Ho: There is no significant difference between the behaviour of female and male pastors.

Ho: There is no significant difference in performance between female and male entrepreneurship. Ho: There is no significant difference between managerial skills of male and female managers. Null hypotheses specify the expected value of single population parameter or the expected relationship between two or more parameters. Therefore, it is important to note that all the hypotheses should be tested.

There is no way a verdict can be passed without an investigation. It asserts that the value of relationship in the null is not true. In research, the null hypothesis is tested, and if rejected, the alternative is accepted. Examples: H1: There is a significant difference between the perception and attitude of entrepreneurs. H1: There is a significant between success in business and determination. H1: Teachers determine the success or failure of their students in life.

All stated hypotheses require testing. Therefore, it is imperative for a researcher to know that all the hypotheses should be backed up by evidence. A directional hypothesis states the relationship between the variables being studied or difference between experimental treatments that a researcher expects to emerge.

Alternative hypothesis that are neutral are called Alternative non-directional hypothesis, and those that are not neutral, are termed as alternative directional hypothesis.

This classification is very important especially when it comes to statistical testing — i. Importance of Hypotheses in Research The hypothesis plays a vital role in research.

Researchers usually base their conclusions on the results of the tests of their hypothesis. It is possible to support or not support the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data. It must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory or previous research or professional experience. A hypothesis is not testable if it calls for techniques that are not available with the present state of the art.

A hypothesis is also untestable if it calls for an explanation that defies known physical or psychological laws. Sample research Hypothesis Farming related transport needs and provision in Mwea Tebere irrigation Scheme, Kirinyaga district, Kenya The following hypotheses were tested in the study: a There is no significant difference in average trip lengths traveled daily by farmers in different sites of Mwea Tebere irrigation Scheme.

The most important role of hypothesis is to guide the direction of the study. A frequent problem in research is the proliferation of interesting information. Unless the researcher curbs the urge to include additional elements, a study can be diluted by trivial concerns that do not answer the basic questions posed.

The virtue of the hypothesis is that, if taken seriously, it limits what shall be studied and what shall not. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not; in so doing, it suggests which form of research Design is likely to be more appropriate.

A final role of the hypothesis is to provide a framework for organizing the conclusions that result. If for example the researcher is investigating poor prices, there significance would be related to improvement of prices. It could also involve creation of awareness of market forces that influence prices of commodities. Significance highlights the reasons for conducting the research, i. Has it contributed to the solution of an immediate problem?

Who will the research benefit i. This includes time and financial constraints that influences the scope of the study, data inaccessibility, and unanticipated occurrences. Limitations need to be differentiated form Delimitations of the study. On the one hand limitations, as already noted refers to limiting conditions or restrictive weakness which are beyond the control of the researcher.

On the other hand, delimitations refer to factors which can be controlled by the researcher, i. Delimitations set parameters on the scope of the study, telling the reader what will be included and what will be included and what will be left out and why. The formats of the Project thesis may vary from Institution to another but all conform to the following chapters. Although many people rightly associate literature with novels and poetry, in research the term is more specific.

A literature review therefore is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that the researcher will be carrying out. It involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals and dissertations that have a bearing on the study being conducted.

Hence, Literature review involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem. This is due to the following: 1. It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the research. Literature review enables the researcher to study different theories related to the identified topic.

By studying these theories, a researcher gains clarity and better understanding of the theoretical foundations related to the current research. It gives the researcher insight into what has already been done in the selected field, pinpointing its strengths and weaknesses.

This information guides the researcher in the formulation of a theory that aims at addressing the identified gaps. It enables the researcher to know the kind of additional data needed in the study. This helps avoid duplication of work. An understanding of previous works helps the researcher to develop a significant problem which will provide further knowledge in the field of study. It also helps in delimiting the research problem. This is through portraying what has already been done and what would be useful to focus on in the current study.

It helps in developing an analytic framework of a basis for analyzing and interpreting data. A thorough review will reveal what strategies, procedures and measuring instruments have been found useful in investigating the problem in question.

This information helps one to avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers and helps one to benefit from their experience. A good review may also help to clarify how to use certain procedures which one may have learned in theory and was still unsure how to execute them.

In most cases, literature review will suggest other procedures and approaches, and this is very useful information because a researcher could try our these suggested approaches, especially if they will improve the research study. A thorough review makes the researcher familiar with previous studies and thus facilitates interpretation of the results of the study.

For example, results can be discussed in terms or whether they support of contradict previous findings. If there is a contradiction, the review might provide a rationale for the discrepancy.

A thorough review exposes the researcher to a variety of approaches. Hence, approaches that have proved to be futile will be revealed helping the researcher to avoid these approaches, and this contributes to a well-designed methodology, and thus a significant study. In some cases, a researcher may not have narrowed down to a topic at the start of literature review. In such cases, the review helps the researcher to limit the problem and to define it better.

Literature review helps to determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The researcher may also be alerted to research possibilities which have been overlooked in the past. In most cases, authors of research articles include specific suggestions and recommendations for those planning further research.

These suggestions are usually found when reviewing literature and should be considered very carefully. Qualities of an Effective Literature Review The following are qualities expected from an effective literature review.

The methodology used in the studies and the quality of interpretation of the findings are also analyzed.

Other issues addressed by the researcher while reviewing literature relate to the sampling procedures adopted and their appropriateness for the study. The interpretation of data particularly on whether if is based on logical deduction of findings is also examined. An investigation is also made of research findings and their statistical significance. The applicability of the research findings to a wide population is discussed.

By identifying these gaps and highlighting the identified controversies, it helps to indicate that further research needs to be carried out on the identified topic. It also points out how the current study will contribute positively towards filling the identified gaps. This link brings consistency and continuity in relation to the identified topic. It also acts as a guideline in assessment of the research questions.

These key issues can be formulated by the researcher clearly identifying the research topic, title and the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The objectives of the study should also be identified. The researcher should also be certain of the specific problem the literature review will help address.

That is, does it deal with issues of theory, methodology, policy or social issues? For example in a study by Kombo , Abortion in Kenya: An examination of its causes and effects of female students in secondary schools and colleges, the research topic was on abortion and its influence on education.

The literature review therefore focused on these aspects. This will assist the researcher to be focused in material selection. What has been done and can be done to assist these students? After the preliminary statement, the researcher can now begin to identify sources of information relevant to the research topic.

There are a wide variety of sources available for locating articles for the review of literature. Many of these sources are available in the libraries. The internet can also be used to locate articles. Some of the sources of information include journal articles. These are good especially for up-to-date information. They are frequently used in the literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research, and because all reputable journals are peer reviewed and refereed that is, editors publish only the most relevant and reliable research.

Books offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources. Conference proceedings are useful in providing current research findings or research that has not been published.

Many government departments and corporations or commissions carry out research. Newspapers can also offer useful information about recent trends, discoveries or changes e.

Specialized magazines are very useful for example business magazines for management students in providing general information about new discoveries and policies. Theses and dissertations can be useful sources of information. The researcher should identify the scope of the literature review.

This will hasten the search for materials. Is it clearly defined? Is its significance clearly established? This will enable the researcher to deduce how applicable the article is to the current study. In the selection of articles, the most recent works on a subject area must be identified. This shows or demonstrates how the researcher is conversant with current trends in knowledge in the subject area.

This includes taking notes and paraphrasing any relevant literature that the researcher would want to include in the literature review. The researcher should mark these notes with some codes for easy retrieval.

This involves putting the code on an index card or on the photocopied article if you photocopied it. The author should indicate any statements that are direct quotations use quotation marks and also jot down the page number. The researcher should keep personal reactions separated from direct quotations.

The details of the source e. The article codes will assist in this. The researcher should also differentiate each main heading into logical subheadings. Points that are similar should be grouped together. This involves analyzing each reference in terms of the research variables. The researcher should also analyze all references identified for the relationships or differences between them. One way of reviewing literature in an organized manner is by viewing it according to the objectives.

The researcher selects an objective and reviews information related to the achievement of that particular objective under the sub-headings of the objective itself. The objectives provide guidelines on what should be put under them and how it should be. The researcher should also reflect on whether the search was narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material. The researcher should also reflect on whether the number of sources used was appropriate in tackling the issue under discussion.

The researcher should also reflect on the relevancy of the information given to the readers. The literature should help put the research problem into perspective. Challenges Faced in the Formulation of Literature Review There are many challenges researchers encounter while writing the literature review.

This includes the following; a Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the current study — Some literature reviews are simply listings of one piece of literature after the other without any discussion and analysis. These make the studies unrelated to the current study. This makes the work disjointed particularly if separate paragraphs are addressing a similar point. The researcher should ensure that similar points are grouped together or combined.

Some researchers start each article with the name of the researcher. This repetition can become tiresome for readers. This can be varied by quoting the author after writing about the article.

Some researchers devote the same amount of space to each study without regard to importance or relevance. The review should be organized according to major points relevant to the research problem. Some results have more bearing on the problem than others and should be expounded on adequately. This is impossible. This at times results in forgetting or omitting important points. A researcher should note down important points in the course of reading.

Some are therefore forced while compiling the literature review, to spend a lot of time in the library tracking down the references to all the sources that they quoted.

They may also have to go through their writing to find which information came from which source. To avoid this, researchers should always put references into their writing. The researcher should critically analyze the work, pointing out contrary findings and alternative interpretations. Though these studies may have valid information and cannot be ignored, the researchers should attempt to base most of the review on current studies. After reviewing literature the researcher should discuss the identified gaps.

This is because it enables the researcher to study different theories related to the identified topic and gain clarity of the research topic. It also enables the researcher to know the kind of additional data needed in the study.

However a good literature review is critical, organized and analytical in orientation. It also justifies the need for the study and highlights the relationship between the past and the current studies.

There are varied challenges faced by researchers in reviewing literature. This is by taking sufficient time to keenly work on this section. A note on types of research proposal In general, research proposals can be divided between those generated for internal and external audiences.

An internal proposal is done by staff specialists or by the research department within the firm. External proposals sponsored by university grant committees, government agencies; government contractors, not-for-profit organizations, or corporations can be further classified as either solicited or unsolicited.

With few exceptions, the larger the project, the more complex the proposal. In public sector work, the complexity is generally greater than in a comparable private sector proposal. There are three general levels of complexity: exploratory studies, small-scale studies, and large-scale studies.

These are noted in Exhibit The explanatory study generates the most simple research proposal. More complex and common in business is the small -scale study - either an internal study or an external contract research project.

The large -scale professional study, worth up to several million dollars, is the most complex proposal we deal with here. However, each agency has unique requirements, making generalized coverage beyond the scope of this text. Know your audience and write for that specific audience: scientific and technical writing can almost never be general purpose. It must be written for a specific audience. This audience is represented by your professors and peers.

Therefore, you must adopt the style and level of writing that is appropriate for your audience. You are responsible for mastering the basis of the language; save your supervisors time for more substitutive issues.

A few glitches and non-parallel tenses will sip through your own careful editing but there is no excuse for frequent ungrammatical sentence; especially during thus age of word processes and spell checkers. When a supervisor receives a thesis in which the writing is poorly developed, expect them to go through enough of it to demonstrate the kind of changes required and return it with the rest unread.

Consider forming a mutual editing team with other students to review each others work. You should be come accustomed both to other peoples work and having your own reviewed. Do not use more words where fewer will do: attempt to be brief and to the point.

Do not use special words to make your writing seem more technical, scientific or academic when the message is more clearly presented otherwise. Think about the structure of paragraphs: poorly structured paragraphs are one of the most common problems found in student writing. Though most students can write reasonable sentences, a surprising number have difficulty organizing sentences into paragraphs. A paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that sets the stage clearly for what will follow.

One of the most comments on student papers is that contents of a paragraph do not reflect the topic sentence. Many writers try to finish each paragraph with a sentence that forms a bridge to the next paragraph. Avoid paragraphs that contain one or two sentences, this is because they cannot develop ideas adequately.

Pay attention to tenses: problems of inappropriate or inconsistent tenses are common in student writing. What you or others did in the past should be stated in the past tense e. Events or objects that continue to happen or exist can be described in the present tense i. Events that will take place in the future can be in the future tense. Whatever tense you choose, be consistent. Captions should not merely name a table or figure; they explain how to read it: a caption figure or table heading should contain sufficient information so that a reader can understand a table or figure in most cases without reference to text.

Take note, however, that plagiarism in any form when making a research paper is disapproved and is usually grounds for demerits or deductions. An introduction is essentially the opening remarks or the opening sentence of any research paper.

It allows for the summary of the topic and gives the question as to why you chose that topic for your research paper and the how is it relevant to your course. It usually starts with something simple like a short definition of what the topic is about and the definition of key words. For references you should try to search for research paper sample on our website for more information.

Chances are, most will say because it is a requirement made by the teachers or is a very important part of your grade. But starting a research paper is as necessary as writing any type of documents. In a way, a research paper can give you insights as to how some things are done.

Starting a research paper is never that difficult a process if you can choose the topic.